It
is becoming increasingly clear in the fastest growing and most culturally
diverse state in the union that the educational agenda for California will dramatically
impact the social, economic, and cultural development of the state. Educational
reform is increasingly being linked with, and being seen as the catalyst for
economic growth. This educational agenda is being formulated out of differing
perspectives and philosophies about the schooling of children and the role of
the school as an institution in a multicultural society. As schools change,
changes in roles for teachers, staff, parents, and the site administrator can
also be expected.
An
increasingly important administrative position in California public schools is
that of the school principal. Ironically, this comes at a time when the shared
decision- making initiative has led some teachers to urge elimination of the
position entirely (Keith & Girling, 1991). Even though the role may shift
from that of a traditional manager to one that combines the skills of a family
therapist, social worker, and group facilitator, the principal's leadership
will continue to be important for effective schools. This is especially true in
urban schools and communities where diverse social and economic problems often
affect what happens at school. Thus, as schools explore such processes as
site-based management, school restructuring, parental involvement, and
community-school
integration, the role of the principal will continue to change.
One
important analysis of the emerging role of principals was completed by the
National Commission for the Principalship (1990). This seminal work identified
twenty-one domains central to effective site level administration. These domains comprise four major categories
(functional, programmatic, interpersonal, and contextual) that are reviewed in
an effort to identify the appropriate scope and function of site level
administration.
This
domain includes the areas of instructional leadership, information collection
and sharing, problem analysis and systems perspective, judgment and
decision-making, organizational oversight and time management, implementation,
and delegation or sharing of duties.
In
an exhaustive review of the literature on leadership and leader behavior,
Immegart (1988, p. 272) concluded that ". . . there are no commonly
accepted conceptualizations, and there is very little of what could really be
called leadership theory to guide inquiry." However, new areas of inquiry
on leadership are beginning to show promise. These include notions of
empowerment of teachers, parents, and even the empowerment of entire schools
(Stimson & Appelbaum, 1988).
Simply
stated leadership in education is the "exercise of critical
consciousness" (Freire, p. 66, 1990). Simplifying the tasks of a site
level administrator to that of only one domain is not being simplistic, but
rather emphasizes the importance of leadership in the overall functioning of a
school. While instructional leadership is the main function of a school
principal, it is how we arrive at instruction in today's complex socio-cultural
and economic context that makes the difference. This implies a wider and more
encompassing definition of instructional leadership to include the physical,
emotional, cultural, and social needs of children and their families. Another
way of looking at instructional leadership is in the degree to which teachers,
parents, and others share a common vision and feel empowered to do their best
as a team.
Therefore,
it would be logical that the principal concentrate on his or her ability to
empower others. However, while most experienced school administrators would
agree with the premise, they might also indicate that it is easier said than
done. Thus, perhaps an example of this type of leadership may be useful.
According to Sergiovanni (presentation at California State University, Los
Angeles, September, 1991), today's school principal must be able and willing to
perform duties of a social work nature. He described a school with a severe
truancy problem with teachers complaining that children were not ready to be
taught. Seeing that children are hungry and lacking hygiene, the kind of
leadership necessary in this situation would be a principal willing to persuade
the faculty and staff to spend resources on a washer and dryer and to create a
store of emergency food. Once children's basic needs are taken care of, better
attendance, increased achievement, and a resultant increase in teacher morale
could be expected. The point of this scenario is to broaden the notion of
leadership.
Information
is power. Sharing it empowers all involved in the school. This is particularly
true if the school is restructuring the way decisions are made. The open flow
of information, with routine discussions about the significance of data
collected, adds one more source of information. This source includes the
interpersonal impressions of members of the faculty, classified staff, and
administration. This is only the beginning, however. As parents and the
community get involved in sharing information, perceptions, visions, and
missions for the school, a rich synergistic synthesis can occur. The potential
for creative leadership and substantial problem-solving can be accomplished.
The
principal can set the tone for how information is going to flow, how to access it,
and ways all members of the school community are going to use it in striving to
achieve their shared mission. This includes establishing high, understandable,
and reasonable goals with the major parties involved, to improve instruction,
and most importantly, to establish trust and good working relationships. In
psychology this would be called a working alliance or a therapeutic
relationship. In education, we call it a collaborative relationship.
The
old story of the blind men attempting to define the elephant by describing the
part of the elephant they each touched is analogous to the point of needing to
move beyond one's limited perspective. The fields of education and behavioral
science owe a great deal to the science of cybernetics and systems engineering.
More than ever, schools function in a sociocultural context that is dynamic.
Consequently, when analysis of problems is necessary, it is important to
maintain conceptual flexibility and involve staff in framing and reframing the
problem.
In
dealing with problems, the use of a systems approach can aid the visualization
of new perspectives on the issues and make solutions to problems more
attainable. This means that all of the variables are not limited to the school,
that elements interact with one another, and that often even dysfunctional
systems are in balance. Thus, the fact that the system appears to work, may not
say much for how effective or functional it is.
Judgment and Decision-Making
Of
all the critical skills a school leader must possess, sound judgment and good
decision-making skills are a must. Much is being said about site-based
management, shared decision-making, and participative leadership. Each of these
concepts involves arriving at judgments and making decisions based on some
criteria. These criteria include the accuracy of information, the desired goals
for the school, the ability to communicate effectively, and the ability to
listen without preconceptions or hidden agendas. It is worth remembering that
the decision is only part of the process; carrying it out and evaluating the
result is perhaps
the
most important part.
The
numerous time demands placed on the site administrator are only an indication
of the expectations placed by others and by the administrator to accomplish
tasks. However, it is important that the site manager maintain good time
management skills and stay on course toward the major goals. Here the
importance of communication cannot be overestimated. To the degree that
oversight responsibility for maintaining focus on the goals and objectives is
shared, good organizational leadership must be exercised.
As
the site administrator, the responsibility will be to ensure that programs are
put into place, that an effective climate for working and for learning is
maintained, and that feedback is provided to all involved. Making things happen
takes team work, evaluation, modification, and plans for improvement. This applies
to curriculum and instruction, to staff development, to school climate and
discipline, and school-community relations.
A
key to effective educational leadership is based on the ability to delegate or
share responsibilities. However, here the distinction is based on the notion of
power, authority, and participative decision-making. One of the chief
complaints in the changing currents of educational reform is that of being told
what to do with no opportunity to know the rationale for the actions. Tasks can
be delegated without explanations of why they are necessary. However, sharing
of responsibilities implies prior discussion and understanding of what needs to
be done and why. The subordinates lament often heard in school halls and play
yards: "We the uninformed, working for the inaccessible, are doing the
impossible for the ungrateful," is a perception that needs to be changed
(Lundy, 1986, p. 5).
Again,
the key is communication. People need to know the answers to questions such as:
What is our goal? Where is the school headed? How are we doing? and most
importantly, How am I doing?
Perhaps
more important than the functional domains are the programmatic domains. These are
the core areas with which site administrators must be concerned; the primary
issues for leading a school toward success. Glickman (1990) uses the metaphor
of supervisory glue: that which makes people bond or stick to one another as
collaborators in the educational process. Furthermore, Glickman invites
educators to work toward a cause beyond oneself. This means the site
administrator must be able to remain focused on the students in the learning
environment and the working members of the team whose expressed purpose is the
overall growth and development of children.
The
heart of a school principal's responsibilities lie in feeling comfortable with
his or her knowledge of curriculum and instruction. This includes the
instruction of students with special needs (e.g., special education, migrant
education, pre-school and Head Start programs).
There
are a number of instructional variables that the site administrator must be
familiar with. These include learning styles, various culturally appropriate
grouping patterns, available instructional materials, and multi-media, among
others. While different curriculum specialists organize them in somewhat
different categories, they generally fall into four basic steps: awareness,
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
Awareness
includes the knowledge of district curricula, their status with respect to
board policies, available support from county offices of education, and
organizations like the South-West Regional Laboratories (SWRL). Implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation all involve the inclusion of others, such as
parents, regular and categorically funded teachers aides, and high school
students.
Whenever
changes are made in existing programs or when new goals or objectives are to be
established, the faculty and staff need to be made aware of these needs. The
needs may be determined by a variety of methods including the polling of the
faculty, surveying the parents, consulting the report of the Western
Association of School and Colleges (WASC) or Program Quality Review (PQR),
reviewing recent student achievement scores, or simply considering the
expressed concerns of staff members. When instructional needs surface, they can
be reported to the faculty via staff meetings, grade level meetings, or
representative groups of teachers. While the principal may take the leadership
in this undertaking, others can help
disseminate information.
Implementation
of new ideas or programs is not expected to be accomplished overnight unless a
new state law or board policy demands that type of action. Teachers often need
to be sold on a new idea. The principal's role is to insure that the staff
members are given opportunities to observe programs in other locations, attend
workshops or conferences, and talk it over among themselves if a grade level or
department is involved. Support personnel from the district or county office
might also be brought in for an inservice session or to work with teachers
directly in their classrooms. If the change requires materials, then it is the
role of the principal to determine what materials are needed and to secure them
by the time the program begins. It is also reasonable to assume that all of the
staff may not accept a new program. Those who do could try the new program on
an
experimental
basis.
One
of the other related tasks of a beginning principal is to become acquainted
with the complete curricula of the school. It takes a great deal of time to
understand all the various levels and groupings of students, but a review of
the district guidelines and courses of study is a good place to start. However,
being familiar with what is taking place does not make you a leader. There are
many schools which teach outdated, culturally biased curricula. Often there is
no alignment between the curriculum taught and the state's curriculum
framework. Familiarity with the county, state, and district curricula will
provide a perspective within which to present ideas to the school.
There
are state demands as well as local requirements in the curriculum of any
district. The principal needs to know and understand these. One of the sources
available to the beginning site level administrator is the district curriculum
consultant. Depending on the size of the district, there may be several
consultants by school level or subject designation, or there may be one person,
the assistant superintendent. These personnel can be helpful in understanding
what is required, what help is available, what materials are furnished by the district,
and the district plan for textbook adoption, as well as the curricular
strengths of the school or district.
Secondary
schools often operate with designated department chairpersons. If these people
have been selected for their knowledge of their subject area they can be of
help to the beginning principal, particularly concerning unfamiliar subject
fields. Individual conferences with each of these curriculum leaders will also
increase the principal's knowledge of the departmental operation and the school's
specific curricular offerings.
Many
districts operate with pre-scheduled years for curricular change and
modification. This type of organization
does not imply that the curriculum cannot be changed or modified during the
intervening years, but it does establish times for designated teachers to work
directly with the district curriculum specialists for these programs. The
principal needs to learn the schedule and participate in the activities as much
as possible. While the principal's role in the area of curriculum is generally
not the writing or developing of curriculum, there is the role of monitoring to
see that the district's and state's guidelines are being followed. It is also
the principal's responsibility to facilitate changes in curriculum as
technological, cultural, community, and
student
needs warrant them.
Student and Family Guidance and Development
Among
the most challenging responsibilities facing the site administrator in a
California school are the areas of school climate, child welfare and
attendance, or pupil personnel services. All of these terms refer to different
situations which affect student behavior. Their commonality is that the site
administrator is responsible for establishing and overseeing policies and
regulations which provide for due process, equity, and assistance for students
who need support in learning. The principal needs to be prepared for the
reality that as the general funds become more and more scarce, problems can
increase and become more complex; teachers will look for leadership on how
these needs can be met.
Traditionally,
the purpose of child welfare workers, counselors, nurses, and other support
personnel was to help children resolve their problems and help them become more
successful in school. However, with the increasing prevalence of high-risk
behaviors, such as drug and alcohol use, and the scarcity of general fund
resources, more and more children and adolescents are having a difficult time
coping with their problems, but are receiving less help. The result of these
changes in the needs of the students has been an increasing emphasis by the
various student services on special needs and at-risk populations. Because of
the number of different needs and the wide array of programs and services, the
site administrator faces the considerable challenge of identifying and
accessing available resources.
External
funding is another area of concern for the site administrator. Often
experienced principals have learned over the years to access outside resources.
In efforts to help schools deal with the increasingly severe problems evidenced
in today's urban schools, state and federal funds have been allocated to
provide primary prevention and support services, including counseling and
prevention programs in drug use and gang involvement. These and many other
programs are now part of the scene in public schools in California. Principals
have to help make decisions regarding the following programs and community
social service professionals and how they will best complement the school
program:
1. The Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) or Substance Abuse and Narcotics Education (SANE) programs, usually operates through the local law enforcement agency.
2. The Gang Alternative Prevention Program (GAPP), is part of the county probation department.
3. The Comprehensive Alcohol and Drug Prevention Education (CADPE), and Tobacco Use Prevention Education programs are also available to support schools.
Even
as the creative site level administrator considers the addition of special
services and programs, the question of taking away from the core curriculum and
the existence of low California Achievement Program (CAP) scores cannot be
ignored. The need to involve faculty, parents, and other community
representatives is particularly important in these areas of special
sensitivity.
No
school will ever be better than its teachers. It is important that the site
level administrator make the selection and supervision of the teaching staff a
high priority. Most districts in California have district office staff who have
major responsibility for recruiting and
screening applicants for teaching positions. This is necessary because of the
tremendous personnel needs in many California districts. However, with the
advent of site-based management and shared decision-making, much of the
responsibility for selection and inservice training will fall back on the
schools. The principal will have a major role in describing the anticipated
vacancies
and specifying the training and experience needed for these positions. The
principal may be responsible for setting up the interview panel and conducting
interviews of candidates. The district personnel office may screen applicants
for credential eligibility, but much of the selection work may be delegated to
the school.
In
helping select teachers, aides, and classified personnel, regardless of the
source of funding, it is incumbent on the site administrator to know his or her
school community and consider the cultural and linguistic diversity before
making recommendations. Often this may be easier said than done, particularly
when many of the school staff may have been employed before the school's
demographics changed and some attitudes may be hard to change.
After
the positions have been filled, the principal should implement a new teacher
orientation as soon as possible. A welcome letter from the principal a few
weeks before the beginning of the school year can do much to establish rapport
between the principal and new teachers. The letter need not be lengthy, but
should show personal interest in the new teacher as well as information about
the teaching assignment (grade level or subject areas), a brief outline of
planned orientation meetings, and an offer of help prior to the first day of
school.
During
the traditional district orientation period (usually 2 to 5 days) the principal
can review the teacher's handbook or other relevant materials with the new
teachers. However, it is usually a good plan to avoid over-scheduling during
this short period of time so that the new teachers can find time for
themselves. They often need to become acquainted with their grade level or
departmental colleagues and also need to have time to work in their classrooms.
Although
more complex than a family, schools are human systems with members who strive
toward personal satisfaction, have a need for belonging and for frequent
communication. This means that the supervisory process is first and foremost a
communication process. Stated this way, teachers are often less likely to feel
intimidated and may learn to see supervision as a way to communicate mutual
needs and perspectives on the students.
Teachers
benefit from frequent supervision and these observations and subsequent
guidance will assure the school, community, and district that capable teachers
are retained and incompetent teachers are dismissed. Many teachers report that
they are seldom or never visited by their principals. A principal cannot know
what is going on in classrooms if he or she does not visit on a regular and
systematic basis.
Frequent
classroom observations are also necessary for the new teacher who is having
difficulty. They allow the principal to point out the areas of weakness, offer
appropriate remediation, and allow the teacher to improve the areas of concern.
The
principal needs to be familiar with the law and procedures for situations which
may require dismissal (Education Code §§44932-44934 & §44660). A principal
might also need to dismiss a tenured teacher. This is more difficult and time
consuming. State laws are more specific and rigorous documentation is
essential. However, if a tenured teacher is incompetent, dismissal can be
accomplished.
Of
all the important responsibilities facing a site administrator, and the one
most likely to be impacted by the school restructuring movement, is the area of
resource allocation. While funding of schools has remained essentially the
same, the way general and categorical funds are used and the degree to which
new categorical funds (e.g., drug abuse prevention) are sought, will make a
great deal of difference in the operation of the school. Teachers and parents
will likely want to be involved in making decisions about priorities, ways of
articulating services, and determining whether or not to apply for categorical
funds. Principals should be knowledgeable of sources of funds and take the
leadership role in facilitating discussions on priorities.
Currently,
most districts in California operate under a centralized budget system so that
the role of the individual site administrator is limited. This is rapidly
changing, however, and the principal does have two important tasks in the
budget process: its administration and the evaluation of its effectiveness.
Administrators
need to be aware of all the budget categories and the funds available in each.
Reviewing past budgets, conferences with the school clerk or secretary who
monitors these funds, and talking with the district business personnel are all
methods of securing this information. A principal needs to know and understand
all the restraints placed on certain funds. Typical school budgets might
include: (a) instructional materials and supplies, (b) furniture and equipment,
(c) field trips, (d) categorical funds (Chapter I, English as a Second
Language, or special education), (e) grant funds, and (f) student activities.
Instructional
materials and supplies belong to teachers for the operation of their classrooms
and need to be divided accordingly. This may simply be a dollar amount per
teacher (elementary) or an allocation by department (secondary). The
principal's job is to help identify special needs and to help create plans to
meet these needs. It is the responsibility of the site administrator to
interpret the rules that govern budgets for the faculty and staff. Some
regulations, such as those for categorical programs, are complicated and
difficult to understand.
The
site administrator needs to monitor the impact of the district budget on the
site budget. Guidelines for ordering materials need to be understood so that
unnecessary delays can be avoided. Some administrators maintain a duplicate set
of books so that the current status of any fund is readily available.
There
is no financial account that is as closely monitored as student activity funds.
While the amount of these funds may not be great at the elementary level, they
amount to thousands of dollars at the secondary level. Regardless of the
amount, however, they need to be carefully handled. The established accounting
procedures must be understood by all school administrators.
Again,
while the principal will probably have limited funds provided to the school for
its operation, and regardless of whether or not the school has moved toward
shared decision-making, it is important to work closely with both certificated
and classified personnel in evaluating the adequacy of the budget. These data
can then be communicated to the district during the formation of the district
budget. In most cases the needs will outweigh the funds available. It will be
important for the site administrator to help develop priorities. Teachers, as
well as others, need to be aware of the budgetary limitations so that planning
will be realistic.
Perhaps
the single most important area for the site administrator is the area of
interpersonal skills. This includes goodcommunications skills, the ability to
listen, and a strong sense of comfort with factors involved in intercultural
communication and conflict resolution. An additional area is the development of
positive staff morale and harmony. Research (Conley & Bacharach, 1990)
indicates that low staff morale, an adversarial climate, and lack of
cooperation often result from lack of leadership and autocratic
decision-making.
Motivational
leadership is an essential part of the administrative role. Teachers, students,
and parents value a person who is enthusiastic about his or her role, respects
them for the parts they play in the educational process, and is consistent and
fair when dealing with problems or disagreements. Conley and Bacharach (1990,
p. ) state: "A collegial, professional work environment can only be
created by adhering to a participatory managerial philosophy that respects
teachers as professionals and decision-makers."
However,
in addition to professional respect and interpersonal worth, the site
administrator has the responsibility of taking the initiative in defining the
school's vision and mission in the educational process. This can only happen
when the climate invites sharing and communicating each other's perspectives.
Tips for good relations with staff include:
1. Know your staff opinion leaders and talk to them frequently on an open basis so you can learn what concerns are being voiced.
2. Plan every activity carefully.
3. Do not ask others to do extra tasks you are unwilling to do yourself.
4. Validate each of your teaching staff when they do something well (verbally, by written note, or both).
5. Control classroom interruptions as much as possible.
6. Listen to all concerns, no matter how small they may seem to you.
Two
other areas of relationships with staff are of particular concern. The first is
the ordinary faculty meeting. Many teachers feel they are unnecessary, deal
only with items which can be better dealt with in a faculty bulletin, and are
held too often or for too long a period of time. Because communication with
staff is both desired and of value, the principal needs to study staff meetings
to insure that they are meeting his or her needs and the needs of the staff.
The
second concern is changing a teaching assignment without prior consultation
about the proposed change. An administrator is often faced with the dilemma of
too few fifth graders for the number of teachers or too many U.S. History
students for the number of faculty. Both situations require shifts in
assignments. However, the pressure is rarely so great that a conference or a
telephone call to the concerned teacher cannot take place so that the change
can be discussed and made together. This simple act can have a positive impact
on staff morale.
And
finally, when working with staff--listen willingly. The teaching staff will
undoubtedly bring you a variety of problems: conflicts with students, conflicts
with parents, disagreements with fellow teachers, as well as personal, family,
health, or professional problems. It is not so much that they seek a solution
to the problem as they want someone to hear them out. Not all problems have
solutions, but the effective principal will offer assistance whenever possible.
In
Freedom to Learn (1969, p. vi) Carl Rogers spoke with a strong sense of urgency
and conviction about a crisis in education. "My own conclusion," said
Rogers during the post-Sputnik and turbulent 1960s, "is that the sense of
urgency derives from my own desire to contribute whatever I can to teachers and
educators in a time of literally fearful crisis." What Rogers was
referring to is the urgent need to access or release the potentiality and
wisdom inherent in human beings. This calls for a site administrator who is
aware of his or her own feelings, has a sense of his or her own potential, and
is equally sensitive to the feelings of others and can sense their potential.
No
matter how competent, knowledgeable, and sensitive a principal might be, if he
or she cannot express himself or herself clearly and passionately, no one is
going to take him or her seriously. Leadership requires strong abilities in
oral expression. This means knowing what you wish to communicate, the issues
involved, and learning to anticipate the other person's point of view. When
making presentations, it is important that they be clear, easy to understand,
clarifying, and answering questions without becoming defensive.
Since
cultural and linguistic diversity are common in California schools, the site
administrator must be aware of verbal and nonverbal communication differences.
For example, the principal should know that teachers and parents from other
cultures may attribute different meanings to tone of voice, hand gestures, eye
contact, and interpersonal distance. The thumbs-up gesture, for example, means
a congratulatory message to an American, but it is an obscene gesture with
sexual connotation to an Iranian American. This complicates the process of
communication. However, many misunderstandings can be avoided if the principal
shows a high level of awareness and sensitivity to others.
Another
important skill for site administrators is the ability to communicate in
written form. This includes good organizational skills, conciseness, and
increasingly important, the ability to utilize computer technology. Most
schools now have access to computers and use word processing programs for
managing, storing, and retrieving written communication.
The
importance of written communication cannot be overemphasized when it comes to
communication with parents and the community. Frequent communication is now
required in the form of the annual School Report Card which resulted from the
accountability movement in California. Principals must also see that
appropriate language translators are available to translate information
routinely sent home. Also, since due process procedures when suspending and
expelling students require written notices, the ability to communicate clearly
is essential.
If
things are not what they once were, it is because the social, cultural, economic,
and geopolitical contexts have changed. With these contextual domains changing,
a new pedagogical imperative for site administrators includes areas American
education has paid little attention to in the past. Some rudimentary knowledge
of these imperatives by the principal could mean the difference between an
effective school and one that places everyone at risk, especially the students.
California
is the most diverse state in the country. Nowhere is this more apparent than in
the public schools. Furthermore, when thinking of cultural diversity, one often
thinks of students and their families. However, the site administrator will
also have to learn to understand cultural diversity in the staff. As more
districts recruit bilingual teachers, and as more university programs train a
greater number of ethnic minority professionals, schools will be able to
reflect the community's diversity. This will create the need for increased
awareness, knowledge, and experience about diverse cultures, learning styles,
differing value systems, and world views.
Perhaps
the most important skill site administrators can develop is the understanding
and appreciation of differing value systems and world views. This can happen
with the acceptance and realization that diversity is at the very foundation of
our democratic roots. Understanding the role of education in our democracy
means understanding the historical context which influenced American education,
as well as the global influences.
With
California school demographics changing as rapidly as they are, it is important
for principals to understand the socio-economic experience of his or her
students. Most families now have two working parents, if two parents are
present. Many have been forced, for economic reasons, to live in one area and
work in another. This limits parents' participation in school events and in
joining support groups. So, although the parents are usually willing to
participate, the site level administrator must understand the limitations faced
by parents.
Very
important areas of responsibility for the site administrator in California are
the laws, regulations, and policies he or she is responsible for implementing.
One relatively easy way to handle this is to develop a conceptual framework on
educational law. First, the administrator should learn to identify the sources
and locations of the Educational Codes, Title V regulations, board policies,
and administrative regulations. The principal is not expected to know and
memorize everything. Half the job is knowing where to refer to for answers to
questions which are likely to come up. Often personnel at the district, county
office, or State
Department
are able to respond to questions.
The
majority of principals in schools in California, if polled, would surely define
themselves as democratic leaders. However, these principles are not always put
into practice. For example, teachers often participate in developing policies
and procedures during faculty meetings and then administrators fail to
implement them. Good staff relations require not only that staff input be
solicited, but that these suggestions be used.
Most
site administrators try to work with staff on a democratic basis as much as
possible. There are many decisions which require the participation of all
concerned. But there are also times when the principal is called upon to be
decisive. The principal of any school is expected to be the leader and be able
to make decisions. For example, while it is important to seek a consensus about
a new tardiness procedure within the school, it would be highly insensitive and
might also be a disaster if time were taken to consult with staff during a bomb
scare.
It
is logical, however, under certain conditions to use situational management in
the operation of a school. Whenever immediate decisions are necessary, the
principal must act. When decisions directly affect teachers (e.g., supply
budgets, teaching assignments), there must be extensive consultation with
teachers. When school policies or rules are adopted for the entire school, the
entire faculty should discuss the issues in order to reach consensus.
Most
parents are supportive of the schools their children attend. Many parents are
willing to volunteer if they are needed. In the recent Gallup Poll about the
public schools, a majority of respondents (79 percent) indicated that more
policy decisions should be made by a council of teachers, principals, and
parents (Elam, Rose, & Gallup, 1991, p. 152). Other studies from the
educational reform movement (Goldman & Dunlap, 1990; Seeley, 1990) clearly
show the importance of parental involvement not only from the standpoint of governance
of the school, but from the standpoint of student achievement. The more parents
participate as co-learners with their children, the greater the student
achievement.
The
final major area of concern for site administrators, and one often neglected,
is the area of public relations efforts between the school and other
intra-system and extra-system organizations. Business organizations, no matter
how large or small, spend time and effort maintaining and improving their image
in the community. They do this not only because of the profit motive, but also
for the benefit of employee morale, supportive political perceptions, and local
acceptance by the community. If community support and acceptance is important
to businesses, it follows that it is also important to the schools.
Public
relations and community involvement help in other ways. The principal who
invites the community to participate actively in the operation of the school
makes business leaders aware of his or her school's needs. This often results
in additional resources through such programs as business partners, adopt a
school, and other support programs.
One
of the most rewarding aspects of being a principal is getting to know so many
students. Although you are away from the fundamental relationship of
teacher-pupil; principals will actually increase the number of students they
know. This is especially true if the principal makes an effort to relate to
students and their experiences.
One
technique that encourages good student relations is for the principal to be
very visible on campus before and after school, during recesses, and during
lunch periods. The open door policy is effective for encouraging communication
with students. It is comforting for some students to know that they can see the
principal and discuss their problems. It is here that effective communication
and some counseling skills can be helpful. In fact, because of the increased complexity
of student problems, the high incidence of violence, and high-risk behaviors,
some districts are now selecting principals who not only possess the
administrative credential, but also have a counseling credential. Students
respond to the kind of expectations set for them. If the principal sets high
standards of behavior and academic achievement and the faculty lend their
support, these standards are more likely to be met. While the self-fulfilling
prophecy may not work for all students, it can help improve the school climate.
Appropriate rewards and penalties should be established, well-known, and
understood by both students and teachers.
Students
need opportunities to excel. Athletic competition is a recognized means to do
this, but there are many others. Schools should offer activities such as drama,
music, creative writing, academic quiz teams, and student government so that
students with widely varied interests have an opportunity to participate in
activities. The principal's role is to support these programs and to actively
seek ways of creating others so the co-curricular program is balanced.
The
major purpose of all co-curricular activities is to supplement the school's
curriculum, not to replace it. Students who are too involved in these activities
can be distracted from the instructional program. Active participants need to
be monitored so their school work does not suffer. On the other hand, studies
have shown that students who rank high on academic performance measures tend to
be more involved in co-curricular activities. Although participation does not
guarantee high academic performance, it does seem to be an important aspect of
many students' lives.
Of
even greater concern to the administrator may be the group of students who do
not take part in any activities. These students seem to be high-risk for
achievement problems and as potential dropouts. There are no easy answers to
the question of how to encourage students to participate in school activities.
With the increasing diversity in our schools, it is reasonable to conduct a
periodic needs assessment to determine the match between programs and student
interests.
No
matter how many aspects there are to a school's public relations program, it
all begins in the classroom. If a pupil is satisfied with the school program
then it is likely that same feeling will be duplicated at home.
Active
involvement of the family in the educational process reinforces and supports
the school's program. An important vehicle for encouraging parent involvement
is the parent conference. Above all else, parents need to leave the conference
with the feeling that it was worthwhile. Some points to consider with regard to
parent conferences are: (a) communication needs to be two-way, with parents
feeling free to express their ideas and opinions, too; (b) translators should
be made available for parents who do not speak English; (c) teachers need to
listen to what is being said; (d) plans need to be developed for the child's
progress; (e) suggestions need to be developed together; and (f) a verbal
summary of the plans needs to be made.
It
is important for teachers to exercise good communication skills and be aware of
cultural differences in communication. Many conferences have resulted in
negative feelings between parents and the school primarily due to lack of
awareness of differences in perspectives and world views. This is an area where
the site administrator can exercise leadership by anticipating the need for
cultural sensitivity training with his or her staff prior to the parent
conferences.
Another
effort to attract parent support for both the elementary and secondary school
is the open house or back-to-school activity typically held once a year. If
teachers are willing to commit themselves to such a program, parent response is
generally good. This is especially true when children take part in the
activities. Successful efforts seem to have the following similarities: (a) a
central focus; (b) faculty involvement from the beginning; (c) student
participation in the evening's activities; (d) a variety of events (music,
athletics, and drama); (e) multiple efforts to inform parents (letters,
telephone calls, and releases); and (f) inviting
next
year's entering grade.
If
parents are unable to attend school events then the obvious alternative is to
go to the parents. One way to accomplish this is to set up meetings with the
school principal and the parents in their homes. A number of districts in
California and in other states have organized these kinds of activities and
have reported a great deal of interest in these types of meetings (Hodgkinson,
1991).
Informal
meetings with parents can be held throughout the year at various times and
places. Members of the faculty and staff, in addition to the principal, might
form a marketing team to share school successes and listen to the concerns of
parents. Parent involvement needs to be a high priority because of the many
benefits to students and the school which include: (a) improved academic
achievement, (b) improvement in student behavior, (c) increased student
motivation, and (d) improved student attendance (Hester, 1989, pp. 23-28).
School-District Relations
The
site administrator is a line administrator, that is, he or she has specific
operational responsibility and reports directly to the superintendent or an
assistant superintendent. There are various other district personnel in staff
capacities whose responsibilities are delegated to them by a line
administrator. These district office support personnel can assist the site
administrator with specific problems and can be a valuable source of
information. Typically charged with a coordinating function such as curriculum,
they also frequently have specific specialities such as school psychology,
special education, counseling, and categorical programs.
It
is not uncommon for district office personnel to have the responsibility of
presenting the larger or overall district perspective. Though this might not
seem best for a particular site, site considerations need to be put into the
context of larger district concerns. How the site administrator handles this
conflict can have a far-reaching effect on future relations with the district
office.
Site
administrators should consider the following key issues when dealing with
district office personnel: (a) they have a staff position, but someone in line
authority is directing their activity; (b) they are asked to take a district
perspective; (c) many have extensive site experience and others have
specialized expertise; and (d) they can effectively contribute to the solution
of site problems. A good working relationship with the district office is
important to effective site administration.
The
site level administrator also serves as an important source of information to
the superintendent. For example, if a parent or group of parents expresses
concern about an aspect of the district's operation and threatens to go
directly to the Board of Education, the principal needs to report this situation
to the superintendent and his or her staff so they can anticipate and be
prepared for the parent group at the next board meeting.
From
the practical standpoint, all site administrators need to understand how things
get accomplished within the district. If a secretary can expedite a work order,
then that knowledge can be very helpful in a crisis situation. Positive
contacts with key district personnel can pay off.
School
Climate and School Discipline
One
of the most important leadership opportunities for the site administrator is
the development of positive school climate and an effective discipline plan.
These factors often determine the overall effectiveness of the school program
and the ultimate decision about the effectiveness of the site administrator.
The
site administrator must help the teachers develop and evaluate school
disciplinary policies. Basically, this is a formulation of a working philosophy
and an understanding that dealing with student infractions requires a team
effort. Most schools can operate with only a few established rules and
regulations. A lengthy list is not necessary. Students, parents, and faculty
know what is acceptable and what is not. Certainly at the high school level,
however, there may be a need to be more specific (e.g., not having weapons on
the school grounds).
Any
rules adopted must be consistent with policies and regulations adopted by the
board of education and the laws of the state. These rules and regulations must
be discussed with the students and communicated to their parents to avoid
misunderstandings. Each teacher should review these rules every year in each
class. At the school level, teachers and administrators need to discuss the
teachers' role when dealing with disruptive students. Teachers need to take the
first steps in dealing with routine discipline problems. A phone call to a
parent to discuss the problem may be helpful at any level. A private conference
is often used by secondary teachers to discuss the behavior of the student.
Some
severe problems require immediate referral to the office. A referral system
should be adopted. Teachers need to know what information is needed by an
administrator to deal with the situation. The referring teacher, the student,
and the student's parents need to expect that the school administration will
handle the problem fairly and consistently. Fairness means fairness to all the
parties concerned. It implies that everyone will be heard and will have an
opportunity to present their cases.
Consistency
is an important aspect of any discipline plan. All faculty must be given
support when handling discipline problems. Accurate records can also help
insure consistency. Though students might be handled differently because of
individual considerations, it is important that these differences are not
perceived as inconsistent or unfair.
Secondary
schools frequently have vice principals or assistant principals who are in
charge of school discipline. Even though that may be true, all principals need
to set the tone for this aspect of the school's operation. This may include the
evaluation of the school disciplinary policies with teachers, discussing issues
which are taking place at the school with parent groups, or addressing
classrooms or the total student body about what is expected of students.
While
discipline is a complex issue which requires a great deal of thought and
careful development, there are a few processes for the school site
administrator which may be of value:
1. Be sure there is a system for
referrals in place that is understood and accepted by the teachers and the
administrators.
2. Discuss the handling of students
with your clerical staff so they will handle referrals appropriately.
3. Do not punish a student if the data
are not there to support such an action.
4. Always treat students with respect
and remember that, above all else, they are children.
5. Make sure you discuss the why of a
situation so the student understands why his or her behavior was
unacceptable.
6. Keep good records.
7. If you agree on some alternative
steps during a parent conference, send the parent a follow-up letter
enumerating these agreements.
8. Follow up periodically with the
teacher to see how a student who has been referred is doing since the
referral.
Local
governance, shared decision-making, parent/community participation, and
cultural diversity are the new challenges for site administrators. This creates
a situation where the principal might become the single most important
educational leader in a school district.
It
is obvious that the site administrator has many specific important functions.
Because of this busy schedule, careful planning is necessary. The secret of
being a good decision-maker is good planning. Taking the yearly calendar and
blocking off periods of time for recruitment and evaluation can keep both of
these important tasks from being last minute, hurried activities. All school events:
parent conferences, open houses, assemblies, athletic events, and graduations
need considerable planning and coordination.
Even
with careful planning and years of experience, the job of being a site level
administrator is a demanding one. Certain yearly events do become routine, but
the students and parents change (at least partially) every year. And, like
teaching, there are new concepts and new programs to develop, administer, and
evaluate.
1.
What advantages or disadvantages are there for a person who was a teacher at
the school where he or she has been appointed the new principal?
2.
From your own observation as a teacher or counselor, are site level
administrators doing the tasks enumerated
in this chapter? Why or why not?
3.
Do you feel it is realistic for a site level administrator to accomplish all of
the tasks described in this chapter? Why or why not?
4.
How would you handle a teacher who was obviously incorrect in the manner in
which he or she handled a discipline situation in the classroom, but refuses to
compromise?
5.
Prioritize (from 1 to 10) the tasks included in this chapter. Be prepared to
defend your choices during class discussion.
6.
Hired as a new principal in a culturally diverse school, describe what steps
you would take to become an effective team with your staff.
7.
Describe your style of leadership, considering this chapter's description of
leadership.
8.
What is meant by the school's climate?
9.
What is changing about being a California principal in the 1990s?
1.
Interview your school site administrator. Ask which five things he or she
thinks should be the top administrative priorities at the school and which five
tasks actually take up the most time. Compare the two lists.
2.
Shadow your principal for as many hours as you can for a week. Keep a log of
the activities accomplished.
3.
Sit in on a disciplinary parent conference. What attitude did you see exhibited
by the student? The administrator? The parent?
4.
Write a letter of welcome to a new teacher on your staff. Develop, in outline
form, a two-day orientation program for your teachers.
5.
Pick the activity described in this chapter which you feel you would have the
greatest difficulty accomplishing. Develop a plan for improving the missing
skills.
6.
Visit with a representative of the county office of education and identify its
divisions and resources for schools.
7.
Identify a school which has adopted shared decision-making as its way to
govern. Visit the site administrator and ask how he or she went about doing so.
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