Chapter 8
THE SCHOOL BOARD
Theodore Vick
By both tradition and legal
interpretation, school boards are policy-making bodies for local school
districts. The local school board is an
instrument of the state government, subject to its control. School board members are agents of the
state, subject tot he will of the legislature.
They derive their authority from the state.
A Brief History of Local
School Boards
Our present system of public
education and our model of governance have their roots in the New England
colonies. When it was recognized that
education was more than a family responsibility, provisions were made for more
formal schooling opportunities for children in the New England colonies. Although the record is not clear, it appears
that the earliest schools were started voluntarily in larger towns. These schools were governed, as were other
governmental functions, largely by decisions made in town meetings. True local control actually existed in such
situations.
People soon recognized that
many children in the colonies were not being provided the opportunity to
receive formal schooling under this arrangement. Appeals to the colonial legislature resulted in action to remedy
this situation. Consequently, the
Massachusetts Acts of 1642 and 1647 followed, requiring schools to be
established in the various towns and villages.
These acts established the right of the state to expect its citizens to
be literate, and to become educated at least to the degree possible in those
early public schools. In many cases
officials of the towns were allowed to require parents to teach their children
to read, to understand the principles of religion, and to know the laws of the
country.
In 1650, the Connecticut Laws
were passed, giving the state the authority to remove children from their homes
and place them with guardians if they were not receiving the education expected
of them by the state. Parents were
expected to ensure that their children learned, and masters were held
responsible for assuring that their apprentices received a basic education.
For the most part, these
early schools were not governed by anything resembling our current boards of
education. Frequently control came
about from actions taken at town meetings.
In many villages this control soon passed to a local minister who became
the equivalent of today’s administrator, supervisor, and school board. This single-person control eventually gave
way to so-called select committees, sometimes composed of elders and ministers
of the churches, but often including lay citizens in their membership. These select committees functioned in a very
similar fashion to the school boards of today.
This system of governance by citizens of the community continues to the
present time with numerous modifications in authority, power, and control.
In California, much public
debate took place over education and whether or not it should be supported by
public funds or left to the control of private sources, especially the Catholic
Church. As early as 1847, San
Francisco’s California Star argued strongly for the building of public
schools (Hendrick, 1980). Due largely
to its efforts, a five-member school board was elected in San Francisco. Public funds were set aside to build a school
and to partially pay a teacher’s salary.
In addition to receiving some public financial support, additional money
was raised by charging tuition for the students who attended. Tuition was based on the program of
education selected by the students who attended. Tuition was based on the program of education selected by the
student. The 3 Rs and geography
cost five dollars per quarter. Grammar
grades were available at six dollars.
In addition, the following was provided (Ferrier, 1937):
In any
or all of the foregoing, together with mental and moral science, ancient and
modern history, chemistry and natural philosophy, it was $8. In any or all of the foregoing together with
geometry, trigonometry, algebra, astronomy, surveying, and navigation, it was
$10. With any of the foregoing,
together with Latin and Greek, the fee was $12 per quarter. If any persons were unable to pay the
tuition fee, admittance was to be free. (p. 24)
In September 1849, delegates
met in Monterey, California, to draft the state’s first constitution. The constitution provided for the election
of a superintendent of public instruction.
By that date, this had only been done in four other states through the
constitutional process. A framework was
created for a common school system operated by local townships under the
supervision of an elected superintendent of public instruction. Subsequent legislation provided for some tax
monies to be raised and apportioned throughout the state for school purposes.
San Francisco appears to have
been the first city to take advantage of the new public school laws in
California. The city council adopted a
Free School Ordinance in September, 1851.
The ordinance provided for the establishment, regulation, and support of
free public schools. A board of
education was created with powers very similar to school boards today. Among the powers and responsibilities of the
board were the following: appoint a superintendent, hire teachers, inspect the
schools at least twice a year, purchase property, build schools, and prescribe
a course of study.
Source of Law Governing
School Boards
The United States
Constitution does not provide authority for a system of public schools. Every state constitution has provisions for
some kind of public education system (although a 1956 amendment to Alabama’s
constitution said that the state is not required to provide public education
[Education U.S.A., 1991]). It is
generally recognized that education is one of the sovereign powers of the
state. In 1924, the California Supreme
Court (Piper v. Big Pine) ruled that education of the children of the
state is:
exclusively
the function of the state which cannot be delegated to any other agency. . .
. It is an obligation which the state
took over to itself by the adoption of the constitution. To accomplish the purpose therein expressed,
the people must keep under their exclusive control, through their
representatives (emphasis added), the education of [the citizens of the
state].
Thus, local school boards are
instruments of state government and in the final analysis, subject to the
control of the state. A California
appellate court decision in 1956 stated “school districts are agencies of the
state for the local operation of the state school system” (Hall v. City of
Taft, 1956).
In addition to the California
Constitution, there are a number of other state sources of law that impact the
public school program. The major one is
the California education Code which contains codified statutes dealing with
education that have been passed by the Legislature. Another major source for school officials is Title V of the
California Administrative Code.
Sometimes called Title V of the California Code of Regulations, it is a
compilation of the policies of the State Board of Education. These policies have the effect of law upon
the operation of public schools throughout the state. Numerous other state codes such as the Vehicle Code, Health and
Safety Code, government Code, and Labor Code include individual sections that occasionally
have an impact on the operation of public education. Decisions reached in the state judicial system often deal with
educational issues. They have varying
effects on the schools of the state depending upon the level of the court that
has made the decision.
Beyond the state level, many
federal sources also determine what can and cannot be done in the public
schools in the State of California.
Although the U.S. Constitution does not say anything specifically about
public education, the general welfare clause (Article I, Section 8) has been
interpreted as giving congress the power to tax for broad social purposes
including the support of formal educational activities. In recent years as Congress has approved a
number of special programs, a proliferation of rules and regulations has
accompanied the federal funding received on the local level. Other federal and state legislation dealing
with a variety of topics including civil rights has had a major impact on the
way school officials have fulfilled their responsibilities on the local
level. Along with the U.S. Constitution
and federal legislation, the federal court system, up to and including the
United States Supreme Court, has exerted great influence on the operation of
public schools throughout the country through decisions reached on numerous
school-related cases.
Characteristics of School
Board Members
In previous years school
board membership was very low key and members were involved in few
conflicts. However, since the late
1970s, societal changes have resulted in growing difficulties for school
boards. Board members have become
embroiled in many controversial issues and are expected to be knowledgeable
about a multitude of subjects including finance, personnel, curriculum, and
facilities.
Counts (1928) conducted a
study of characteristics of school trustees in 1927. Although many changes have taken place in the way school boards
function and the issues that come before the boards from the community; little
has changed regarding the characteristics of the trustees themselves. Most are employed as professionals or
managers. Economically, the majority
are upper middle-class with an income that is above average. Although recent trends have seen higher
numbers of females and minorities serving on school boards, white males still
dominate board membership. Most recent
estimates indicate that about 70 percent have been male and the majority of
these have been Caucasian (Campbell, Cunningham, Nystrand, & Usdan, 1990).
There are a number of motives
for wishing to have a school board position.
Some people represent special interest groups within the community and
consider service a way to promote the viewpoints of the particular group
represented. Others are truly
community-oriented and simply wish to help make the schools more effective in
serving the children of the district.
Still others are motivated by certain personal goals, including having
an axe-to-grind or perhaps having further political aspirations. Studies have indicated that relatively few
people actually show much interest in higher office although this is not always
the case (Zeigler, Jennings, & Peak, 1974). In fact, in the California Legislature there are a number of
Assembly members and Senators who started their political careers as school
board members. Several members of
Congress representing California initially served as members of school
boards. One well-known national
politician whose first elected position was on a school board is former
President Jimmy Carter (Wirt & Kirst, 1989).
Types of School Boards
California uses a three-tier
system of school boards: local, county, and state. Each of these boards has a different function and operates under
separate authority.
The Local School Board
in California
In California, the State
Constitution (Articles 9 and 16) provides the authority for the establishment
of local school boards. The specific
powers of the local board are determined by action of the Legislature. Such legislation, when signed by the
governor, or upon becoming law without the governor’s signature, is placed in
the Education Code (or in certain instances placed in other California
Codes). In the Education Code the
governing board is commonly referred to as the school board. According to the Education Code every school
district in the state is governed by a board of education or board of school
trustees (Education Code §35010). The
powers and duties of a school board are detailed in the code. Education Code Section 35290 indicates that
the governing board of any school district shall maintain schools and classes
as provided by law. Education Code
Section 35291 states that the governing board shall prescribe rules not
inconsistent with law or with the rules prescribed by the State Board of Education
for the government and discipline of the schools under its jurisdiction.
Prior to 1976, it was
generally assumed that boards had no authority to act unless the Education Code
specifically granted that power. In
that year Education code Section 35160 was added; thus codifying the State
Constitutional Amendment of 1972 and changing the Education Code to what is
know as a permissive code. This section
of the code changed the way boards were able to operate as follows:
On or
after January 1, 1976, the governing board of any school district may initiate
and carry on any program, activity, or may otherwise act in any manner which is
not in conflict with or inconsistent with, or preempted by, any law and which
is not in conflict with the purpose for which school districts are established.
Unfortunately, in many
instances legal advisors to school districts interpret the code as if its
provisions were applied prior to the change in law to make it a permissive
code. Legal advice of this kind often
counsels school boards not to take some action unless it is directly authorized
by statute.
State Board of
Education
In addition to local boards
of education, California also has a State Board of Education with members appointed
by the governor. Provisions for this
board are found in the California Constitution in Articles 7, 7.5, and 9. The State Board has been granted power to
adopt needed rules and regulations for all public schools in California as long
as they are not in opposition to state law or the state’s constitution. Such regulations are placed in Title V of
the California Code of Regulations and have the effect of law on school
districts and their operations statewide.
Title V, along with the Education Code, is a major source of school law
in the state.
County Boards of
Education
Based on the state
constitution and legislation, provisions exist for a board of education in each
county. It is possible under some
circumstances to have a joint county board of education elected for two or more
counties (California Constitution 9, 3.2).
County boards of education work with the county superintendent of
schools adopting rules, regulations, and budgets for the operation of that
office. They county superintendent’s office
is responsible for a number of different duties which vary somewhat from county
to county depending upon the number of students served in the public schools of
the county and the financial support available. In general, services provided include credentialing and related
monitoring of teacher assignments, special education programs, business
advisory services, and curriculum and instruction assistance to local
districts.
Duties and Powers of Local
Boards
The local district board of
education is the agency that actually operates the public schools of California
under authority delegated by the Legislature.
Due to a number of restrictions imposed by legislative action and court
decisions, both federal and state, local boards and not able to exercise the
degree of local control often expected by the public and employees of the
district. Although a complete listing
of the duties and powers of local governing boards would be extensive, a
condensed version developed by Falk (1968) reflects the major duties and powers
of the board as follows:
1. To formulate local district policy
(budgetary, personnel, educational, disciplinary) under the law.
2. To employ the superintendent and staff as
well as other certificated and classified employees. . . of the district. The board alone may hire personnel, usually
on the recommendation of the superintendent.
3. To buy land, build, and maintain schools,
authorize bond elections, and offer services authorized by law.
4. To hold board meetings and keep records
thereof and to see that all required district records (financial, attendance,
and so on) are kept and reported annually to the county and state.
5. To obligate the district by contracts for
personnel, services, equipment, supplies, and for textbooks. . . . (pp. 72-73)
While many specific items could be added to the list,
negotiations are of particular importance.
Since the passage of the Rodda Act (Government Code §3540) in 1975,
boards have the duty to enter into collective bargaining with employees upon
request. Items agreed to in this
process become part of a binding contract that further restrict the power of
the local board to make decisions on matters affecting the local district.
School board involvement in students’ rights issues is
also an area of some concern. Boards
must ensure that policies are in place to assure students of required due process
when disciplinary action such as suspension or expulsion, is considered. Suspension usually is handled at the
administrative level and requires less formal due process than does expulsion
which requires action by the school board.
The Education Code lists grounds for expulsion, suspension, and
procedures that should be reflected in policies adopted by the local
board. Boards are also asked to
consider requests from students for inter-district attendance transfers. School boards have the final word on such
requests with an appeal to the county board of education available when an
inter-district attendance transfer request is denied. The local board also has the duty under the state constitution to
provide safe, secure, and peaceful schools for the students to attend.
Selection of Boards Members
Qualifications
In general, any registered voter of the school
district meets the basic requirements to be a candidate for election to the
school board. These requirements are: Must be at least 18 years old, a
registered voter, a citizen of California, and a resident of the school
district (Education Code §35107). There
are a few exceptions to this general rule provided by the state constitution
and by state laws. For example, a
person may not be a candidate for public office if he or she has sworn an oath
to support a foreign government while still a citizen of the United States
(Government Code §1023).
Until recently California has banned political party
endorsements in elections for school board positions. This has been done with the intention of decreasing opportunities
for corruption at the local level. The
Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected that argument in 1990, stating that the
ban on partisan endorsement by political parties “illegally restricts political
speech” and therefore violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the
United States Constitution (CSBA News, 1990, p. 1).
Trustee Elections
School board elections are usually held on the Tuesday
following the First Monday in November in odd-numbered years. This can be
changed if school elections are consolidated with municipal elections. The school district may consolidate its
election with any regular county or municipal election held on the same
day. Joint districts, having territory
in two counties, may not consolidate the election if one of the counties has
refused to permit a consolidation. The
school district must stagger the terms of the board members so that
approximately one-half of the seats become vacant at each election. When the date for the election has been
selected, the county clerk or the registrar of voters takes care of all the
actual details needed to conduct the election.
School board members are elected for four year terms;
such terms ending on the first Friday in December. If no successor has taken the required oath of office by the
first Friday in December, the incumbent continues in office until such time as
the new trustee has become qualified by taking the oath of office. The oath may be administered by any
incumbent board member, the secretary of the board, or the superintendent of
the school district.
Size of the Board
All school boards do not have the same number of
members. They may be composed of three,
five, or seven trustees (Education Code §35012). Most school boards in California have five members. Proposed changes in the size of the board
may be made by the county committee on school district organization, by registered
voters in the district, or by the board itself. Any actual change in size must be approved by the voters of the
district in order to become effective.
Student Members of the Board
School districts which have at least one high school
may have non-voting student representatives serving on the board. Students start the process by submitting a
petition to the board requesting the appointment of one or more students as
members. The petition, to be binding on
the board, must have the signatures of either 10 percent of the high school students
in the district or 500 high school students, whichever is smaller.
To be a candidate, the student, regardless of age,
needs to be enrolled in one of the high schools of the district. The student member is chosen by the students
at the appropriate hich school, and is appointed to the board by board
action. Students may request more than
one representative, but the board does not have to appoint more than one. Although the student member is selected by
other students, the board may establish the procedures to be used by the
students in making the selection.
After being appointed, the student member has the
right to attend all open meetings of the school board. Student members do not have the right to
attend closed sessions of the board.
All board materials distributed to voting members, except for closed
session materials, must also be given to student members. Student members may take part in all board
discussions and planning, but may not vote on any item of board business. A 1988 survey revealed that about 33 percent
of the school boards in the state had student members (California School Boards
Association, 1989).
Pay for Board Services
State law allows for board members to be compensated
for their services. The board must vote
for such compensation in an open session.
The maximum amount of money that can be paid to each trustee is based
upon average daily attendance (ADA) of the district during the prior year. Table 8.1 shows the maximum amount allowable
for the various size districts (California School Boards Association, 1989).
Board members do not lose compensation if they miss a
meeting because they are performing services for the school district or if they
miss up to two meetings due to illness each calendar year. Otherwise, a board member who fails to
attend all of the board meetings receives less pay. An estimated 56 percent of board members receive stipends for
board meeting attendance. In addition
to such direct pay, legislation allows school trustees to receive health and
welfare benefits. Throughout
California, approximately 62 percent of board members are covered by their
district’s fringe benefit package. The
permissive provision of the Education Code also allows school districts to pay
for the actual and necessary expenses of school board-related activities. Such
expense reimbursement is subject to policies developed and adopted by each
local board of education.
Table 8.1. Maximum Amount Allowable for Board Services.
Maximum
monthly Prior Year
compensation ADA
$60 Up to 150
$120 151-1,000
$240 1,001-10,000
$400 10,001-25,000
$750 25,001-60,000
$1,500 60,001-400,000
$2,000 over 400,000
Vacancies on the School Board
Although school board members are elected to serve for
full terms of four years and such terms do not all expire in the same years; at
times vacancies might occur on the board.
Based on Education Code Section 5090 and government Code Section 1023
any of the following may result in a vacancy on the school board:
1. The death of the incumbent.
2. A judicial declaration of physical or mental
incapacity.
3. Resignation.
If a member files a letter of resignation with the local county
superintendent of schools, the resignation takes effect either on the date of
the filing or on a future date specified in the letter. The resignation becomes irrevocable on the
date of filing.
4. Removal from office.
5. The incumbent’s ceasing to be a citizen of
the state or a resident of the school district or trustee area.
6. An absence from the state without permission
for a period longer than that allowed by law.
7. The incumbent’s failure to discharge his or
her duties of three consecutive months, except when the failure results from
illness or a permitted absence from the state.
8. The incumbent’s conviction of a felony or any
crime involving malfeasance in office.
9. The incumbent’s refusal to take the oath of
office or post a required bond.
10.
The decision of a court declaring the election or appointment void.
11. A
judicial commitment to a hospital for substance abuse.
12.
Failure to elect a member.
Filling a Vacancy
When a vacancy occurs, the school board must decide
whether to fill the vacancy by appointment or by calling a special
election. The appointment must be made
or the election called within 60 days from the date the vacancy occurs or from
the date the letter of resignation is submitted (not when it becomes
effective). If the board fails to act
within the 60-day period, the county superintendent will call a special
election. An appointed replacement
holds office only until the next regularly scheduled election. An elected replacement serves for the
remaining term of the member who is being replaced.
If an appointment is made to fill the vacancy, voters
of the school district have the power to cancel the appointment if they are not
satisfied with it. To accomplish this
it is necessary to submit a petition signed by 1.5 percent of the voters who
were registered at the date of he last school election held in the district or
signed by 25 voters; whichever number is greater. The provision is included because of the many small districts
that exist in California. This petition
must be submitted within 30 days of the appointment and will not only cancel
the appointment but will also result in the calling of a special election to
fill the vacancy. All costs of the
special election must be assumed by the local school district.
Recall of the School Board
If the voters of a school district become dissatisfied
with the performance of an individual board member they may attempt to remove
the member from office prior to the end of his or her term. Registered voters can do this by petitioning
for a recall election and then voting the member out of office. Voters may recall a board member for any
reason that is not in violation of the Elections Code. Basically this means that a recall may not
be attempted if a board member has been in office less than 90 days, has survived
a recall election within the last 6 months, or has less than 6 months left
until the end of the member’s term.
The recall petition must contain the name and title of
the board member, the reasons for the recall, and the name(s) of from one to
five residents proposing the recall.
The board member has a right to respond to the charges and have the
responses included on the petition before it is circulated for signatures. The petition also must contain a request for
an election of a successor if the recall is successful. If the member is recalled, the voters must
elect a replacement to serve the balance of the term when they vote on the
recall issue.
Only registered voters who are eligible to vote for
the board member subject to recall may sign the recall petition. The number of signatures necessary to force
a recall election varies based on the size of the district. Proponents of the recall have between 40 and
120 days after the petition’s approval by the county clerk to collect the
necessary signatures. By the end of the
appropriate time period, the petition must be submitted to the county clerk who
will verify the signatures and notify the school district of the result. If the petition is sufficient, the school
board must order the election. If the
board does not take action within two weeks, the county clerk will order the
election.
According to Cloud (1952) the first recall election
ever held in the United States took place in Berkeley, California, on April 30,
1912. Twenty percent of the Berkeley
electors signed recall petitions to remove three members of the City Board of
Education from office. These officials
were recalled. At issue was the
attempt by the three board members to terminate a popular school
superintendent, who later served in successful administrative positions in
various educational institutions.
Problems as Seen by Board Members
In the 1986-1987 school year a survey was conducted by
the Institute of Educational Leadership regarding various aspects of public
education. Results of that nationwide study
found a number of issues that apply to California schools. School districts reported the following
problems that challenge the effectiveness of local boards of education
(Danzberger, Carol, Cunningham, Kirst, McCloud, & Usdan, 1987):
1. Lack of public understanding of the role of
boards.
2. Poor relationships with state policymakers.
3. Improving teaching in the framework of
collective bargaining.
4. Amount of time boards invest in their work
versus satisfaction with the accomplishments and ability to determine their own
priorities.
5. Board members reported they did not spend
enough time on any one important issue.
6. Problems in becoming a unified board rather
than a collection of individuals.
7. Need for board strategies and a framework to
assess and communicate board effectiveness.
Superintendent/Board Relationships
It is extremely important for an efficiently operated
school district that a good relationship be maintained between the board and
the superintendent. This requires
continuing effort on the part of both parties, good communication skills, and a
commitment by both to integrity, honesty, and openness with one another. Following a five-year study of
superintendent turnover, Giles and Giles (1991) concluded:
. . . there is a general lack of communication between
boards and superintendents which begins even during the selection process,
continuing ever after. We cannot
overemphasize the importance of open communication from the very beginning,
including the interview and total selection process. Boards need to put time and effort up front, identifying what is
really wanted in a superintendent. (p. 2)
The superintendent is employed by the board as its
chief executive. The board is the
policy-making body of the school district in its financial, operational,
personnel, and curriculum services.
Board members, individually or collectively, should not become involved
with managerial or administrative detail.
When they do, confusion in staff relations and strife in public
relations often follow.
One of the most important responsibilities of the
school board is to provide for regular evaluation of the superintendent. The board should establish a regular time to
review expectations and progress toward meeting those expectations.
Local Control
Local school boards, as agents of the state, exert
much control over issues that take place in the individual school districts;
however, as the system and policies grow more complex, local control is a less
accurate description. Much local
control has been lost to school boards.
Opponents of local boards give a long list of failures as justification
for curtailing local control. Perhaps
the most powerful contenders for a share of local control are teachers’
organizations.
Most experts seem to feel that local boards, local
control, and citizen or lay participation are important aspects of our educational
tradition that must be continued (Campbell, Cunningham, Nystrand, & Usdan,
1990). One of the results of collective
bargaining has been the concentration of power in teacher organizations. The expansion of strikes in recent years in
public education is likely to provoke a harsh public reaction. The move toward shared decision-making and
site-based management may bring about some positive changes in this regard.
In school systems with strong unions, there are at
least two authority systems; often not in agreement with one another. Employees in such systems divide their
loyalties between the union and the school board. Noteworthy educational changes can take place only if supported
by both authority systems. Board
members are increasingly occupied with issues that are only remotely related to
classrooms. As boards are faced with
increasing mandates from state and federal legislatures and from state and
federal courts, they find there are fewer areas where local control is a
reality. As that change occurs, much
seems to be lost for the lay citizen’s role in democracy as it relates to the
system of public education.
Conclusion
The development of school boards from the earliest
days of public schooling in the New England colonies has followed a progression
from the town meetings to single-person control to today’s multi-member school
boards. Various sources of law have
provided for the establishment of boards of education as well as giving them
legal authority for their actions. In
addition to local boards of education, California also has a state board of
education and provisions for a board of education in each county. Each of these boards is authorized and
controlled by provisions of the State Constitution as well as specific statutes
enacted by the Legislature.
There are numerous problems often faced by local
school boards, including two special and significant matters: first, the need
for positive superintendent/board relationships, and second, the continuing
erosion of local control, thereby reducing the power of boards of education
throughout the state.
Discussion Questions
1. Explain five ways in which a vacancy on a
school board may occur.
2. Discuss briefly the recourse that electors
have if they object to an appointment made to fill a vacancy on a school board.
3. Discuss five problems perceived by board
members as factors that challenge the board’s effectiveness.
4. What is the board’s role in establishing a
positive relationship with the district superintendent?
5. Explain concerns held by many school boards
over the issue of local control.
6. How involved should the superintendent be in
working for the election of specific board candidates?
Suggested Projects or Activities
1. Attend a school board meeting and analyze the
way the meeting is conducted, interaction of board members and the
superintendent, and public participation.
2. Obtain board agendas from two or more school
districts. Compare the agendas as to
organization, format, and detail.
3. Interview the president of a school board to
learn the procedures and criteria used in evaluating the superintendent. Interview the superintendent of the district
to obtain his or her perspective of the procedures and criteria used in
evaluating the superintendent. Compare
the responses.
4. Determine the practices and policies in your
district in regard to orientation of newly elected board members and/or
candidates for the board.
5. Discuss with a member of your school board
his or her feelings as to the role of board members in responding to complaints
voiced by employees, parents, or other members of the community
Suggested Readings
California School Boards Association. (1989). School
law: A guide to what every board member should know. Sacramento: Author.
Campbell, R. F., Cunningham, L. L., Nystrand, R. and
Usdan, M. D. (1990). The
organization and control of American schools. Columbus,
OH: Merrill.
Danzberger, J. P., Carol, L. N., Cunningham, L. L.,
Kirst, M. W., McCloud, B. A., and
Usdan, M. D. (1987, September). School boards: The forgotten players on the education team. Phi Delta Kappan, 69(1).
Falk, C. J. (1968).
The development and organization of education in California. San
Francisco: Harcourt Brace and World.
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